Electronic label free detection of DNA complexes using nanogap

ABSTRACT

A technique for electrical detection of a molecule is provided. A fluidic bridge is formed between a nanopipette and a fluid cell, where the molecule is in the nanopipette. A voltage difference is applied between the nanopipette and the fluid cell, where the fluid cell contains an electrolyte solution. Entry of the molecule into the fluidic bridge is determined by detecting a fore pulse. The fluidic bridge between the nanopipette and the fluid cell is broken to form a nanogap. In response to waiting a time interval, the fluidic bridge is reformed between the nanopipette and the fluid cell to close the nanogap. The molecule is determined to exit the nanopipette by detecting an after pulse.

DOMESTIC PRIORITY

This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No.14/337,401, titled “ELECTRONIC LABEL FREE DETECTION OF DNA COMPLEXESUSING NANOGAP” filed Jul. 22, 2014, the contents of which areincorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Embodiments relate to detection of molecules, and more particularly todetection of molecules (e.g., DNA, RNA, etc.) via a controllablenanogap.

Nanopore sequencing is a method for determining the order in whichnucleotides occur on a strand of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). A nanoporeis a small hole on the order of several nanometers in internal diameter.The theory behind nanopore sequencing relates to what occurs when thenanopore is immersed in a conducting fluid and an electric potential(voltage) is applied across the nanopore. Under these conditions, aslight electric current due to conduction of ions through the nanoporecan be measured, and the amount of current is very sensitive to the sizeand shape of the nanopore. If single bases or strands of DNA pass (orpart of the DNA molecule passes) through the nanopore, this can create achange in the magnitude of the current through the nanopore. Otherelectrical or optical sensors can also be placed around the nanopore sothat DNA bases can be differentiated while the DNA passes through thenanopore.

DNA could be driven through the nanopore by using various methods. Forexample, an electric field might attract the DNA towards the nanopore,and DNA might eventually pass through the nanopore.

BRIEF SUMMARY

According to an embodiment, a method for electrical detection of amolecule is provided. The method includes forming a fluidic bridgebetween a nanopipette and a fluid cell, where the molecule is in thenanopipette, and applying a voltage difference between the nanopipetteand the fluid cell, where the fluid cell contains an electrolytesolution. The method includes determining entry of the molecule into thefluidic bridge by detecting a fore pulse, breaking the fluidic bridgebetween the nanopipette and the fluid cell to form a nanogap, inresponse to waiting a time interval, reforming the fluidic bridgebetween the nanopipette and the fluid cell to close the nanogap, anddetermining that the molecule exits the nanopipette by detecting anafter pulse.

According to an embodiment, a system for electrical detection of amolecule is provided. The system includes a nanopipette filled with anelectrolyte solution, a fluid cell filled with the electrolyte solution,a nanopositioner attached to the nanopipette in order to move thenanopipette with respect to the fluid cell, and a control systemconnected to the nanopositioner in order to control movement of thenanopipette. The control system is configured to perform operationscomprising forming a fluidic bridge between the nanopipette and thefluid cell, where the molecule is in the nanopipette, applying a voltagedifference between the nanopipette and the fluid cell, and determiningentry of the molecule into the fluidic bridge by detecting a fore pulse.Also, the control system is configured to break the fluidic bridgebetween the nanopipette and the fluid cell to form a nanogap in responseto waiting a time interval, reform the fluidic bridge between thenanopipette and the fluid cell to close the nanogap, and determine thatthe molecule exits the nanopipette by detecting an after pulse.

According to an embodiment, a method for electrical detection of bindingof a protein to a molecule is provided. The method includes forming afluidic bridge between a nanopipette and a fluid cell, where themolecule and the protein are in the nanopipette, applying a voltagedifference between the nanopipette and the fluid cell, where the fluidcell contains an electrolyte solution, determining entry of the moleculeinto the fluidic bridge by detecting a fore pulse, and breaking thefluidic bridge between the nanopipette and the fluid cell to form ananogap. The method includes in response to waiting a time interval,reforming the fluidic bridge between the nanopipette and the fluid cellto close the nanogap, and determining that the protein is bound to themolecule by detecting an after pulse when the molecule exits thenanopipette.

Other systems, methods, apparatus, design structures, and/or computerprogram products according to embodiments will be or become apparent toone with skill in the art upon review of the following drawings anddetailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems,methods, apparatus, design structures, and/or computer program productsbe included within this description, be within the scope of theexemplary embodiments, and be protected by the accompanying claims. Fora better understanding of the features, refer to the description and tothe drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

The subject matter which is regarded as the invention is particularlypointed out and distinctly claimed in the claims at the conclusion ofthe specification. The forgoing and other features are apparent from thefollowing detailed description taken in conjunction with theaccompanying drawings in which:

FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic of an example test setup utilizing apipette according to an embodiment;

FIG. 2 illustrates the dynamics of nanogap creation by moving thepipette, along with detection of the translocation of the moleculeaccording to an embodiment;

FIG. 3 illustrates a graph of ionic current pulses related totranslocation of the molecule during stages of operation according to anembodiment;

FIG. 4A illustrates a molecule with no attached coating in the nanogapaccording to an embodiment;

FIG. 4B illustrates the molecule with a coating attached in the nanogapaccording to an embodiment;

FIG. 4C illustrates a coating attached at two segments of the moleculeaccording to an embodiment;

FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating manipulation of the molecule anddetection of binding factor complexes according to an embodiment;

FIG. 6 is a flow chart of a method for electrical detection of amolecule according to an embodiment;

FIG. 7 illustrates a graph of example sequence of actionsperformed/caused by the according to an embodiment; and

FIG. 8 illustrates a computer test setup which may implement, control,and/or regulate features discussed herein according to an embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments provide a technique for manipulating a segment of a chargedmacromolecule (molecules include DNA, RNA, protein, etc.) inside atransient nanogap between two fluidic reservoirs. The nanogap istransient because the nanogap can be created and closed as desired. Thistechnique may use an FPGA-driven nanopositioner (i.e., z stage) tocontrol the coupling of a nanopipette with the liquid surface of afluidic cell. The developed platform enables testing of predictions forthe behavior of charged macromolecule in a nanogap between two fluidicreservoirs, without fabricating nanochannels/nanopores.

FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic of an experimental (test) setup 100 whichutilizes a nanopipette 45 as a single molecule detector according to anembodiment. FIG. 1 shows a fluidic cell 20 and nanopipette 45 filledwith a buffered electrolyte solution 15. The nanopipette 45 includes anelectrode 55 in the buffered electrolyte solution 15, and the fluidiccell 20 includes an electrode 60 in the buffered electrolyte solution15. The electrodes 55 and 60 are connected to a voltage source 40 toprovide voltage (a voltage bias) to the electrodes 55 and 60. In onecase, the electrodes 55 and 60 may be made of Ag and/or AgCl. In onecase, the electrolyte solution 15 may include 1 mole (M) KCl at a pH8.0. A meter 35 is connected in the circuit to measure ionic current(and/or voltage, etc.). A z stage 25 (which is a nanopositioner) isconnected to the nanopipette 45 via an attachment 50 such as a holder orclamp (as understood by one skilled in the art). The clamp extends fromthe Z stage 25 nanopositioner to move up and down as moved by thenanopositioner. The nanopipette 45 is physically attached to theattachment 50 holder. The z stage 25 is configured to raise and lowerthe nanopipette 45 (in nanometer (nm) increments) to contact the surface65 of the buffered electrolyte solution 15 in the fluidic cell 20.Optionally, a control system 30 may be utilized to raise and lower thenanopipette 45 in and out of the buffered electrolyte solution 15 of thefluidic cell 20.

The nanopipette 45 is a long tapered capillary, and unlike ananopore/nanochannel, the nanopipette 45 does not need a thinhigh-capacitance membrane for support. As a result, the nanopipette 45has a very low parasitic capacitance, which allows fast and low-noiseionic current measurements (via the meter 35 and voltage source 40). Inone case, the experimenters used a Sutter P-2000 laser puller to makenanopipettes from Sutter QF100-70 quartz capillaries with an outerdiameter (OD)=1 millimeter (mm) and an inner diameter (ID)=0.7 mm. Thecapillaries used had a filament to make filling the pipette with theelectrolyte solution easier. The pipettes can be made using a two-linepuller program.

As noted above, the nanopipette 45 filled with the buffered electrolytesolution 15 containing dsDNA molecule 10 is mounted on an electronicallycontrolled z-stage 25. The ionic current established through thenanopipette 45 on the application of a bias voltage (via the voltagesource 40) is used to detect the passage of DNA molecules 10 throughnanopipette 45. By raising the nanopipette 45 soon after the detectionof the DNA molecule entry (via measured ionic current by the meter 35)into the fluidic cell 20, a transient nanogap 250 (shown in FIG. 2) canbe created. After the creation of the nanogap 250 the nanopipette 45 islowered to reestablish contact with the electrolyte solution 15, themeter 35 monitors the ionic current through the nanopipette 45 whichenables the detection of the escape of the DNA molecule 10 trapped inthe nanogap 250. The details of setup 100 including the control system30 and the protocols are described further herein. Note that the controlsystem 30, meter 35, and voltage source 40 may be implemented incomputer system 800 in FIG. 8. The computer system 800 may also controlthe z stage 25 nanopositioner in the manner discussed herein.

FIG. 2 illustrates the dynamics of nanogap 250 creation by moving(raising and lowering) the nanopipette 45 and detection of thetranslocation of the molecule 10 in the nanopipette 45 according to anembodiment. Although some elements are omitted for the sake of clarity,FIG. 2 includes all of the elements of FIG. 1. FIG. 2 illustrates stagesof operation related to the detection of an ionic current pulses or noionic current pulse. FIG. 3 illustrates a graph 300 of ionic currentpulses related to translocation of the molecule 10 during the stages ofoperation (including the vertical movement of the nanopipette 45)according to an embodiment. The operations/actions of FIG. 2 (along withFIGS. 1 and 3-8) may be caused by, initiated by, stopped by, and/orcontrolled by the control system 30 based on feedback (the ionic currentmeasured by the meter 35) from the meter 35 and/or voltage source 40.

In FIG. 2, stage A shows when the z stage 25 nanopositioner has brought(lowered) the tip 220 of the nanopipette 45 into physical contact withthe surface 65 of the electrolyte solution 15 contained in the fluidiccell 20 so as to form a fluidic bridge 260. In stage A, the voltagesource 40 is turned on to generate a voltage bias (voltage) via theelectrode 55 in the nanopipette 45 and the electrode 60 in the fluidiccell 20. During stage A, the tip 220 of the nanopipette 45 filled withelectrolyte solution 15 completes the circuit with the electrolytesolution 15 in the fluidic cell 20 such that ionic current is nowflowing, and the meter 35 measures ionic current. The fluidic bridge 260is the completed circuit formed by the electrolyte solution 15 in thenanopipette 45 being in electrical connection with the electrolytesolution 15 in the fluidic cell 20. During stage A, the voltage biascauses a first part of the molecule 10 to exit the tip 220 and thentranslocate (move) into the electrolyte solution 15 contained in thefluidic cell 20, while the other part of the molecule 10(simultaneously) remains in the tip of the nanopipette 45. At the timeof translocation, the meter 35 measures a fore pulse 205 shown in FIG.3, and the fore pulse 205 is a spike in the ionic current indicative ofthe first part of the molecule 10 exiting the tip 220 and moving intothe electrolyte solution 15 in the fluidic cell 20.

In FIG. 2, stage B shows when the z stage 25 nanopositioner has raised(lifted) the tip 220 of the nanopipette 45 out of physical contact withthe surface 65 of the electrolyte solution 15 so as to break the fluidicbridge 260 and form a nanogap 250. The nanogap 250 is the separation ofdistance between the surface 65 of the electrolyte solution 15 in thefluidic cell 20 and the tip 220 of the nanopipette 45. In stage B inFIG. 2, the meter 35 measures a pulse break 210 in the ionic currentshown in FIG. 3. The pulse break 210 is a drop in the ionic current thatis recognized by the meter 35. This pulse break 210 occurringimmediately after the fore pulse 205 confirms the creation of nanogap250. During stage B, the ionic current does not have a complete path toflow once the nanogap 250 is opened. In one case, the nanogap 250 may beless than 500 nanometers (nm). The nanogap 250 may be 10, 20, 30, 40,50, 60 . . . 100, 150 nanometers to about 500 nanometers. During stageB, there may be three sections of the molecule 10 as shown in FIGS. 4A,4B, and 4C (generally referred to as FIG. 4). By reapplying the voltagebias (via voltage source 40), the first part 405 of the molecule 10exits the tip 220 and is in the electrolyte solution 15 of the fluidiccell 20; the exiting of the first part 405 of the molecule 10 isdetermined/confirmed by detecting the fore pulse 205. A second/middlepart 410 of the molecule 10 is now in the nanogap 250 (i.e., the part410 is neither in the tip 220 nor in the electrolyte solution 15contained in the fluidic cell 20). A third/end part 415 of the molecule10 is still in the (tip 220 of the) nanopipette 45. Note that in onecase a lower amount of voltage may still be turned on during stage B. Inanother case, the voltage of voltage source 40 is turned off (i.e., 0volts).

In FIG. 2, stage C shows when the z stage 25 nanopositioner has brought(lowered) the tip 220 of the nanopipette 45 back into physical contactwith the surface 65 of the electrolyte solution 15 contained in thefluidic cell 20 so as to restore the fluidic bridge 260. The circuit iscompleted again, and the voltage source 40 is turned on (and/orincreased) to generate the voltage bias again via the electrode 55 inthe nanopipette 45 and the electrode 60 in the fluidic cell 20. Duringstage C, the meter 35 measures an after pulse 215 shown in FIG. 3, andthe after pulse 215 is a spike in the ionic current indicative of thethird/end part 415 of the molecule 10 exiting tip 220 of the nanopipette45 to completely reside in the electrolyte solution 15 in the fluidiccell 20. The after pulse 215 also confirms that the third/end part 415of the molecule 10 was actually in the nanopipette 45 during stage B.

Now, turning to FIGS. 4A, 4B, and 4C (generally referred to as FIG. 4),FIG. 4 illustrates further details of manipulating the molecule 10 whilethe nanogap 250 is formed according to an embodiment. As noted above,FIG. 4 shows the first part 405 of the molecule 10 in the fluidic cell20, the second/middle part 410 in the nanogap 250, and the end part 415in the nanopipette 45. FIG. 4 corresponds to stage B in FIG. 2, when thenanogap 250 is present.

In FIG. 4A, the molecule is a (pure) dsDNA (double strand DNA) moleculewith no coating. In FIG. 4A, the dsDNA molecule 10 is not trapped. Thenanogap 250 is transparent to the pure dsDNA (i.e., with no coating).

In FIG. 4B, the molecule 10 is a dsDNA molecule with a coating 450_Aattached. The coating 450_A (and coating 450_B discussed below in FIG.4C) are DNA-binding molecules with a high charge contrast. On the otherhand, the pure dsDNA molecule (with no attached coating 450A and/or450_B) has a low charge contrast. Empirically, charge contrast can bedefined as the ratio of the charge per unit length of bare DNA moleculeover the same length of the molecule coated with certain molecules thatbind to the DNA, examples being RecA and TALE proteins. The coating450_A and coating 450_B may be a protein. Other examples of the coating450_A and coating 450_B include RecA and TALE proteins (further exampleproteins can be found in the following which are herein incorporated byreference: S. W. Kowalczyk, A. R. Hall, and C. Dekker, “Detection ofLocal Protein Structures along DNA Using Solid-State Nanopores” NanoLett. 10, 324 (2009); F. Zhang, L. Cong, S. Lodato, S. Kosuri, G. M.Church and P. Arlotta, “Efficient construction of sequence-specific TALeffectors for modulating mammalian transcription”, Nature Biotechnology,29, 149-153 (2011)). In FIG. 4B, the coating 450_A is applied to onesegment of the dsDNA molecule 10. In this case, the coating 450_A isapplied/attached to the first part 405 of the molecule 10 in order totrap the molecule 10 in the nanogap 250. The coating 450_A has a highcontrast ratio which binds coating 450_A at/to the top surface 65 of theelectrolyte solution 15 in the fluidic cell 20. Consequently, the firstpart 405 of the molecule 10 is bound to the surface 65 of theelectrolyte solution 15 such that the molecule 10 is trapped in place.When the molecule 10 is trapped in the nanogap 250 via the coating450_A, it is assumed that the voltage bias (voltage) of the voltagesource 40 is turned off and/or is lower than the voltage bias applied todrive the molecule 10 into the fluidic cell in stages A and C. Having alow voltage or no voltage applied in FIG. 4B ensures that the voltage ofthe voltage source 40 does not drive the molecule 10 completely in thefluidic cell 20 and out of the nanopipette 45.

FIG. 4C is similar to FIG. 4B, but FIG. 4C shows a second coating 450_Battached on the end (third) part 415 of the molecule 10. The secondcoating 450_B is applied to the last segment of the dsDNA molecule 10 inorder to trap the molecule 10 in the nanogap 250. The coating 450_B hasa high charge contrast ratio which binds coating 450_B at/to the surface460 of the electrolyte solution 15 in tip 220 of the nanopipette 45.Consequently, the end part 415 of the molecule 10 is bound to thesurface 460 of the electrolyte solution 15 (in the nanopipette 45) suchthat the molecule 10 is trapped in place. When the molecule 10 istrapped in the nanogap 250 via the coating 450_B, it is (again) assumedthat the voltage bias (voltage) of the voltage source 40 is turned offand/or lower than the voltage bias applied to drive the molecule 10 intothe fluidic cell in stages A and C. In one case only the coating 450_Amay be utilized to trap the molecule in the nanogap 250. In anothercase, only the coating 450_B may be utilized to trap the molecule 10 inthe nanogap 250.

In another case, both coatings 450A and 450_B may be utilized to trapthe molecule 10. Further, when both coatings 450_A and 450B areutilized, the middle part 410 of the molecule 10 can be stretched. Inone case, when the separation between the coatings 450_A and 450_B areapproximately equal to the distance/width of the nanogap 250, the middlepart 410 of the molecule 10 is stretched/extended. In one case, the zstage 25 nanopositioner can be incrementally moved upward in order towiden the nanogap 250 (to a predetermined distance that separates thecoatings 450_A and 450B) in order to stretch the middle part 410 of themolecule 10 all while the coating 450_A binds to the surface 65 andwhile the coating 450_B binds to the surface 460. In one case, thevoltage of voltage source 40 may be applied at a predefinedmagnitude/level less than the voltage required to break the coating tosurface bond between the coating 450_A and surface 65 and/or less thanthe coating to surface bond between the coating 450_B and surface 460.

Note that the coating 450_A and coating 450_B may be generally referredto as coating molecules 450. Prior to binding with the molecule 10, thecoating molecules 450 may be placed in the nanopipette 45 such that thecoating molecules 450 are initially unattached to the molecule 10, whichfor testing to determine if the coating molecules 450 are candidates tobind with the molecule 10. The binding of the coating molecule 450 withthe molecule 10 can be utilized to determine that the particular coatingmolecule 450 being tested (which can be a protein) is a transcriptionfactor. The binding of the coating molecule 450 can be determined byutilizing the test setup 100 in at least two ways. In the first case,anytime the molecule 10 is trapped in the nanogap 250, the controlsystem 30 can determine that the particular coating molecule 450 beingtested has bound to the molecule 10 because the unbound molecule 10 doesnot get trapped in the nanogap 250. In the second case, the controlsystem 30 can determine that detection of the after pulse 216 (measuredby the meter 35) is a result of the coating molecule 450 havingsuccessfully bound to the molecule 10, and this after pulse 215 isdetected when the bound coating molecule 450 and molecule 10 complexexit the nanopipette 45. In one case, to discriminate/distinguish (theafter pulse 215) when the unbound molecule 10 exits the nanopipette 45and when the bound molecule 10 (i.e., bound to the coating molecule 450)exits the nanopipette 45, a baseline magnitude for the unbound molecule10 (e.g., pure DNA) is established. The baseline magnitude for theunbound molecule 10 is lower than the magnitude of the after pulse 215created by the bound molecule 10 (i.e., bound to coating molecule 450).Therefore, when the meter 35 detects the magnitude of the after pulse215 greater than the baseline magnitude (with unbound molecule 10, suchas pure DNA) for the after pulse 215, the control system 30 (computersystem 800 discussed herein) determines that the coating molecule 450has successfully bound to the molecule 10.

FIG. 5 is a flow chart 500 illustrating manipulation of the molecule 10and detection of binding factor complexes (i.e., the coating molecule450 bound to the molecule 10) according to an embodiment. The coatingmolecules 450 being tested for binding are deposited into thenanopipette 45 along with the molecule 10 as understood by one skilledin the art. When a particular type of coating molecule 450 (e.g.,protein) binds to the molecule 10, this coating molecule 450 isdetermined to be a DNA-bound factor. The various operations in FIG. 5may be controlled by, initiated by, determined by, and/or caused bycontrol system 30 (which may be implemented in the computer 800).

As understood by one skilled in the art, DNA-binding proteins areproteins that are composed of DNA-binding domains and thus have aspecific or general affinity for either single or double stranded DNA.DNA-binding proteins include transcription factors which modulate theprocess of transcription, various polymerases, nucleases which cleaveDNA molecules, and histones which are involved in chromosome packagingand transcription in the cell nucleus. A transcription factor (sometimescalled a sequence-specific DNA-binding factor) is a protein that bindsto specific DNA sequences, thereby controlling the flow (ortranscription) of genetic information from DNA to messenger RNA. Thecoating molecules 450 may be tested for their use as DNA-bindingproteins using the test setup 100 according to embodiments.

At block 505, the fluidic bridge 260 is formed between the nanopipette45 and the fluidic cell 20 as shown in stage A in FIG. 2.

At block 510, the voltage source 40 applies a voltage difference (i.e.,voltage) between the nanopipette 45 and fluidic cell 20, whilemonitoring the ionic current via the meter 35.

At block 515, the meter 35 is configured to detect entry of the molecule10 into the fluidic bridge 260 using the fore pulse 515.

At block 520, the z stage 25 (nanopositioner) forms the nanogap 250 byseparating the fluidic cell 20 and nanopipette 45 in order to break thefluidic bridge 260. Optionally, the voltage (of the voltage source 40)is reduced between fluidic cell 20 and nanopipette 45.

At block 525, the control system 30 (which may be implemented incomputer 800) is configured to wait for a predetermined time interval,sufficient for an unbound molecule (DNA) to leave the nanogap 250 in theevent that the coating molecule 450 did not bind to the molecule 10,before causing Z stage 25 to lower back into physical contact with theelectrolyte solution in the fluidic cell 20. This predetermined timeinterval may be at least 5, 10, 15, 20 milliseconds (ms).

At block 530, the control system 30 controls the z stage 25 to reconnectthe fluidic cell 20 and nanopipette 45 in order to reform the fluidicbridge 260. The voltage source 40 increases the voltage between thefluidic cell 20 and nanopipette 45. The control system 30 (e.g.,computer 800) waits a predetermined time interval (at least 5, 10, 15,20 . . . 30 ms) to determine if the meter 35 detects the after pulse 215at decision block 535 (as shown in stage C).

When the meter 35 does not measure the after pulse 215 (with the largemagnitude indicative of the bound complex comprising the molecule 10bound to the coating molecule 450), the flow proceeds back to block 510so that another molecule can move to the tip 220 (as in stage A). Whenthe meter 35 does measure the after pulse 215 (with the large magnitudeindicative of the bound complex comprising the molecule 10 bound to thecoating molecule 450), the computer 800 (control system 30) and/orexperimenter/operator determines that that the DNA bound factor is foundat block 540. In other words, the computer 800 (control system 30)and/or operator determines that the coating molecule 450 has bound tothe molecule 10. The control system 30 may include one or moreprocessors that execute computer executable instructions, and thecontrol system 30 is configured to control the movement of the z stage25 in order to move the nanopipette as discussed herein. The controlsystem 30 is configured to control the level of voltage applied by thevoltage source 40 and to turn the voltage source 40 on/off via controlline 70, as discussed herein. Different levels/magnitudes of ioniccurrent measured by the meter 35 operate as triggers to cause thecontrol system 30 to move the nanopipette 45 (via z stage 25) up or downand/or to increase/decrease the voltage (via voltage source 40). Thecontrol system 30 is configured to detect/determine the movement andlocation of the molecule 10 according to measured ionic levels (i.e.,spikes and no spikes).

Also, the control system 30 is configured to detect/determine thebinding of the coating molecule 450 to the molecule 10 based on themeasured ionic level. In one test setting, the presence of the afterpulse 215 indicates that the coating molecule 450 has bound to themolecule 450. The control system 30 (computer 800) is configured todetermine that the protein (e.g., coating molecule 450) is not bound tothe molecule 10 by detecting no after pulse 215 after the nanogap 250has be closed to reform the fluidic bridge 260 and/or by detecting theafter pulse 215 with a baseline magnitude corresponding to the molecule10 being unbound; the after pulse baseline magnitude (for unboundmolecule 10) is lower than an after pulse magnitude corresponding to theprotein (coating molecule 450) bound to the molecule 10.

FIG. 6 is a flow chart 600 of a method for electrical detection of amolecule 10 according to an embodiment. The various operations in FIG. 6may be controlled by, initiated by, and/or caused by the control system30 (which may be implemented in the computer 800). The control system 30may include memory to receive/store triggers, receive/store ioniccurrent measurements (current spikes/pulses), and store computerexecutable instructions for operating the test setup 100 as discussedherein.

At block 605, the z stage 25 nanopositioner (via control system 30)forms the fluidic bridge 260 between the nanopipette 45 and the fluidcell 20, where the molecule 10 is in the nanopipette 45.

At block 610, the voltage source 40 applies (via control system 30) avoltage difference (voltage bias) between the nanopipette 45 and thefluid cell 20, where the fluid cell 20 and the nanopipette 45 bothcontain the electrolyte solution 15. The fluidic bridge 260 is the fluidconnection of the electrolyte solution 15 in both the fluid cell 20 andthe nanopipette 45 such that an electrical connection (circuit) isformed to conduct electricity (ionic current), when the voltage isapplied.

At block 615, the control system 30 determines entry of the molecule 10into the fluidic bridge 260 (and into the fluidic cell 20) by detectingthe fore pulse 205.

At block 620, the control system 30 instructs the z stage 25nanopositioner to move upward for breaking the fluidic bridge 260between the nanopipette 45 and the fluid cell 20 in order to form thenanogap 250.

In response to waiting a time interval (e.g., predetermined amount ofmilliseconds (ms)), the control system 30 is configured to reform thefluidic bridge 260 between the nanopipette 45 and the fluid cell 20 toclose the nanogap 250 at block 625.

At block 630, the control system 30 is configured to determine that themolecule 10 exits the nanopipette 45 by detecting the after pulse 215.

Forming the fluidic bridge between the nanopipette and the fluid cellcomprises bringing the tip 220 of the nanopipette 45 into physicalcontact with the electrolyte solution 15 in the fluid cell 20, therebycreating the fluidic bridge 260. The voltage difference (e.g., V_(b)applied by the voltage source 40) drives the molecule 10 to beginexiting the nanopipette 45 and entering the electrolyte solution 15 inthe fluid cell 20.

Breaking the fluidic bridge 260 between the nanopipette 45 and the fluidcell 20 to form the nanogap 250 comprises moving the tip 220 of thenanopipette 45 a distance away from the electrolyte solution 15 (in thefluid cell 20) such that a first part 405 of the molecule 10 is in theelectrolyte solution 15 and a second part of the molecule remains in thenanopipette. Strictly speaking, the second part is actually the lastpart 415 in FIG. 4 since the middle/second part 410 is in the nanogap250.

In response to breaking the fluidic bridge trapping the molecule betweenthe nanopipette and the fluid cell, the control system 30 is configuredto cause the trapping of the molecule by having a first part 405 of themolecule in the electrolyte solution 15 and a second part (which is thelast part 415 in FIG. 4) of the molecule in the nanopipette 45. Themolecule 10 is trapped so as to extend through the nanogap 250 as shownin FIGS. 2 and 4.

A first coating molecule 450_A is attached to the first part 405 of themolecule 10. The first coating molecule 450_A is trapped at asurface-to-fluid interface of the electrolyte solution 15 (i.e., thesurface 60) when the nanogap 250 is formed, thereby trapping the firstpart 405 of the molecule at the surface-to-fluid interface as shown FIG.4B.

A second coating molecule 450_B is attached to the second part of themolecule (which is shown as the last part 415). The second coatingmolecule 450_B is trapped in the tip 220 of the nanopipette 45 when thenanogap 250 is formed, thereby trapping the second part of the moleculein the tip of the nanopipette. The control system 30 is configured tocause the z stage 25 of the nanopositioner to stretching the middle part410 of the molecule 10 extended through the nanogap 250 by moving thenanopipette away from the fluid cell 20.

The fore pulse 205 is a spike in ionic current that indicatestranslocation of the molecule through the tip of the nanopipette 45 (asshown in stage A in FIG. 2). The fore pulse 205 is a trigger (receivedby the control system 30) for the nanopipette 45 to be moved away fromthe fluid cell 20, thus creating the nanogap 250. The after pulse 215 isanother spike in the ionic current indicating (to the control system 30)that the molecule 10 has completely exited the tip of the nanopipette.

Further information of the control system 30 is discussed below. Todiscuss an example of the control system 30, the control system 30 maybe an embedded controller by National Instruments (NI, Austin, Tex.)PXI-8108, located inside NI PXI-1031 chassis, which runs LabViewgraphical user interface (GUI) and data logging service. The controlsystem 30 may have an NI PXI-7852R board, located inside the samechassis, which features an FPGA chip and several 16-bit 1 MHz analoginput/output channels. There may be a Synchronous Finite State Machine(FSM), specified with LabView's State Chart diagrams, running on theFPGA at a frequency of 0.2 MHz, in order to operate as discussed herein.

As noted above, the control system 30 (which may include and/or beimplemented in the computer system 800) is configured to perform aseries of actions. In particular, detection of the fore pulse 205triggers the sequence of actions by the control system 30, includingraising the pipette tip position Z_(p) (assuming that the tip positionstarts in physical contact (which may include dipping the tip 220 intothe electrolyte solution 15 in the fluidic cell 20) with the surface 60so as to form the fluidic bridge 260) and changing (via voltage source40) the bias voltage (V_(b)) while measuring the pipette current I_(p)via meter 35. The actions and their duration are programmable in thecontrol system 30 as understood by one skilled in the art.

FIG. 7 is a graph 700 illustrating example sequence of actions performedby the control system 30 according to an embodiment. The x-axis showsthe time and corresponding actions. The y-axis shows the voltage bias(V_(b)) applied at each time and for each action. Also, the y-axis showsthe vertical positioning waveform (Z_(p)) of the nanopipette 45 (tip)during each time and for each action. The vertical positioning waveformZ_(p) denotes the position of the nanopipette 45 for each bias voltage(V_(b)). Time t₀ through t₇ corresponds to action start times, andlabels A0 through A6 name the actions.

While the voltage bias (V_(b)) is being applied and after detecting afore pulse at to, the control system 30 passively monitors ionic currentI_(p) without changing any controls (action 0 (A0)). Duration t₁-t₀ ofA0 is selected in such a way as to allow the charged molecule 10 totranslocate partially into the fluidic cell 20 (as shown in stage A inFIG. 2). For example, the duration t₁-t₀ may be 2-5 ms. At t₁ action A1drops the bias voltage (V_(b)) to zero, removing the drift component oftranslocation, and leaving only the Brownian diffusion of the chargedmolecule 10. Soon after, at t₂ A2 raises the tip 220 and opens thenanogap 250 between the liquid surface 60 and the nanopipette tip 220.This traps and/or stretches the molecule 10 in the nanogap 250. ActionsA3 and A4 allow the probing of the molecule 10 stretched in the nanogap250 by changing V_(b) and the monitoring I_(p). In one case, a non-zeroV_(b) is applied during A3 which allows the control system 30 to detecta current through the molecule 10 stretched in the nanogap 250. Inanother case, the V_(b) is set to 0 V when the molecule 10 is stretchedat time A3 and A4. Also, the stretched part 410 of the molecule 410 maybe placed under a microscope (not shown). Fluorescent markers may havebeen applied to the molecule in advance for viewing it under an opticalmicroscope. At time t₅, the pipette tip 220 closes the nanogap 250 bylowering Z_(p) (action A5), and after a short delay (e.g., 2-5 ms),needed to separate the effects of Z_(p) and V_(b) changes on I_(p), thebias voltage (V_(b)) is restored at t₆. At this moment of t₆ (actionA6), the after pulse 215 can be observed, corresponding to the molecule10 having been in the tip 220 and is now just exiting the tip 220. Timet₇ corresponds to re-starting the process (sequence of actions) overagain just as depicted for time t₀.

Now turning to FIG. 8, FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a computersystem 800 (e.g., as part of the computer test setup for testing andanalysis) which may implement, control, and/or regulate the respectivevoltages of the voltage sources, respective measurements of ammeters,and display screens for displaying various current amplitude as would beunderstood to one skilled in the art. The computer system 800 may storeresults, time stamps, readings, applied voltages, measurements, etc.,taken during the testing and analysis.

Various methods, procedures, modules, flow diagrams, tools,applications, circuits, elements, and techniques discussed herein mayalso incorporate and/or utilize the capabilities of the computer 800.Moreover, capabilities of the computer 800 may be utilized to implementfeatures of exemplary embodiments discussed herein. One or more of thecapabilities of the computer 800 may be utilized to implement, toconnect to, and/or to support any element discussed herein (asunderstood by one skilled in the art. For example, the computer 800which may be any type of computing device and/or test equipment(including ammeters, voltage sources, current meters, connectors, etc.).Input/output device 870 (having proper software and hardware) ofcomputer 800 may include and/or be coupled to the nanodevices andstructures discussed herein via cables, plugs, wires, electrodes, patchclamps, pads, etc. Also, the communication interface of the input/outputdevices 870 comprises hardware and software for communicating with,operatively connecting to, reading, and/or controlling voltage sources,ammeters, and current traces (e.g., magnitude and time duration ofcurrent), etc., as understood by one skilled in the art. The userinterfaces of the input/output device 870 may include, e.g., a trackball, mouse, pointing device, keyboard, touch screen, etc., forinteracting with the computer 800, such as inputting information, makingselections, independently controlling different voltages sources, and/ordisplaying, viewing and recording current traces for each base,molecule, macromolecules, biomolecules, etc.

Generally, in terms of hardware architecture, the computer 800 mayinclude one or more processors 810, computer readable storage memory820, and one or more input and/or output (I/O) devices 870 that arecommunicatively coupled via a local interface (not shown). The localinterface can be, for example but not limited to, one or more buses orother wired or wireless connections, as is known in the art. The localinterface may have additional elements, such as controllers, buffers(caches), drivers, repeaters, and receivers, to enable communications.Further, the local interface may include address, control, and/or dataconnections to enable appropriate communications among theaforementioned components.

The processor 810 is a hardware device for executing software that canbe stored in the memory 820. The processor 810 can be virtually anycustom made or commercially available processor, a central processingunit (CPU), a data signal processor (DSP), or an auxiliary processoramong several processors associated with the computer 800, and theprocessor 810 may be a semiconductor based microprocessor (in the formof a microchip) or a macroprocessor.

The computer readable memory 820 can include any one or combination ofvolatile memory elements (e.g., random access memory (RAM), such asdynamic random access memory (DRAM), static random access memory (SRAM),etc.) and nonvolatile memory elements (e.g., ROM, erasable programmableread only memory (EPROM), electronically erasable programmable read onlymemory (EEPROM), programmable read only memory (PROM), tape, compactdisc read only memory (CD-ROM), disk, diskette, cartridge, cassette orthe like, etc.). Moreover, the memory 820 may incorporate electronic,magnetic, optical, and/or other types of storage media. Note that thememory 820 can have a distributed architecture, where various componentsare situated remote from one another, but can be accessed by theprocessor 810.

The software in the computer readable memory 820 may include one or moreseparate programs, each of which comprises an ordered listing ofexecutable instructions for implementing logical functions. The softwarein the memory 820 includes a suitable operating system (O/S) 850,compiler 840, source code 830, and one or more applications 860 of theexemplary embodiments. As illustrated, the application 860 comprisesnumerous functional components for implementing the features, processes,methods, functions, and operations of the exemplary embodiments.

The operating system 850 may control the execution of other computerprograms, and provides scheduling, input-output control, file and datamanagement, memory management, and communication control and relatedservices.

The application 860 may be a source program, executable program (objectcode), script, or any other entity comprising a set of instructions tobe performed. When a source program, then the program is usuallytranslated via a compiler (such as the compiler 840), assembler,interpreter, or the like, which may or may not be included within thememory 820, so as to operate properly in connection with the O/S 850.Furthermore, the application 860 can be written as (a) an objectoriented programming language, which has classes of data and methods, or(b) a procedure programming language, which has routines, subroutines,and/or functions.

The I/O devices 870 may include input devices (or peripherals) such as,for example but not limited to, a mouse, keyboard, scanner, microphone,camera, etc. Furthermore, the I/O devices 870 may also include outputdevices (or peripherals), for example but not limited to, a printer,display, etc. Finally, the I/O devices 870 may further include devicesthat communicate both inputs and outputs, for instance but not limitedto, a NIC or modulator/demodulator (for accessing remote devices, otherfiles, devices, systems, or a network), a radio frequency (RF) or othertransceiver, a telephonic interface, a bridge, a router, etc. The I/Odevices 870 also include components for communicating over variousnetworks, such as the Internet or an intranet. The I/O devices 870 maybe connected to and/or communicate with the processor 810 utilizingBluetooth connections and cables (via, e.g., Universal Serial Bus (USB)ports, serial ports, parallel ports, FireWire, HDMI (High-DefinitionMultimedia Interface), etc.).

In exemplary embodiments, where the application 860 is implemented inhardware, the application 860 can be implemented with any one or acombination of the following technologies, which are each well known inthe art: a discrete logic circuit(s) having logic gates for implementinglogic functions upon data signals, an application specific integratedcircuit (ASIC) having appropriate combinational logic gates, aprogrammable gate array(s) (PGA), a field programmable gate array(FPGA), etc.

The descriptions of the various embodiments of the present inventionhave been presented for purposes of illustration, but are not intendedto be exhaustive or limited to the embodiments disclosed. Manymodifications and variations will be apparent to those of ordinary skillin the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the describedembodiments. The terminology used herein was chosen to best explain theprinciples of the embodiments, the practical application or technicalimprovement over technologies found in the marketplace, or to enableothers of ordinary skill in the art to understand the embodimentsdisclosed herein.

The present invention may be a system, a method, and/or a computerprogram product. The computer program product may include a computerreadable storage medium (or media) having computer readable programinstructions thereon for causing a processor to carry out aspects of thepresent invention.

The computer readable storage medium can be a tangible device that canretain and store instructions for use by an instruction executiondevice. The computer readable storage medium may be, for example, but isnot limited to, an electronic storage device, a magnetic storage device,an optical storage device, an electromagnetic storage device, asemiconductor storage device, or any suitable combination of theforegoing. A non-exhaustive list of more specific examples of thecomputer readable storage medium includes the following: a portablecomputer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM), aread-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROMor Flash memory), a static random access memory (SRAM), a portablecompact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), a digital versatile disk (DVD),a memory stick, a floppy disk, a mechanically encoded device such aspunch-cards or raised structures in a groove having instructionsrecorded thereon, and any suitable combination of the foregoing. Acomputer readable storage medium, as used herein, is not to be construedas being transitory signals per se, such as radio waves or other freelypropagating electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves propagatingthrough a waveguide or other transmission media (e.g., light pulsespassing through a fiber-optic cable), or electrical signals transmittedthrough a wire.

Computer readable program instructions described herein can bedownloaded to respective computing/processing devices from a computerreadable storage medium or to an external computer or external storagedevice via a network, for example, the Internet, a local area network, awide area network and/or a wireless network. The network may comprisecopper transmission cables, optical transmission fibers, wirelesstransmission, routers, firewalls, switches, gateway computers and/oredge servers. A network adapter card or network interface in eachcomputing/processing device receives computer readable programinstructions from the network and forwards the computer readable programinstructions for storage in a computer readable storage medium withinthe respective computing/processing device.

Computer readable program instructions for carrying out operations ofthe present invention may be assembler instructions,instruction-set-architecture (ISA) instructions, machine instructions,machine dependent instructions, microcode, firmware instructions,state-setting data, or either source code or object code written in anycombination of one or more programming languages, including an objectoriented programming language such as Smalltalk, C++ or the like, andconventional procedural programming languages, such as the “C”programming language or similar programming languages. The computerreadable program instructions may execute entirely on the user'scomputer, partly on the user's computer, as a stand-alone softwarepackage, partly on the user's computer and partly on a remote computeror entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario,the remote computer may be connected to the user's computer through anytype of network, including a local area network (LAN) or a wide areanetwork (WAN), or the connection may be made to an external computer(for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider).In some embodiments, electronic circuitry including, for example,programmable logic circuitry, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA), orprogrammable logic arrays (PLA) may execute the computer readableprogram instructions by utilizing state information of the computerreadable program instructions to personalize the electronic circuitry,in order to perform aspects of the present invention.

Aspects of the present invention are described herein with reference toflowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams of methods, apparatus(systems), and computer program products according to embodiments of theinvention. It will be understood that each block of the flowchartillustrations and/or block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in theflowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, can be implemented bycomputer readable program instructions.

These computer readable program instructions may be provided to aprocessor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, orother programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, suchthat the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computeror other programmable data processing apparatus, create means forimplementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or blockdiagram block or blocks. These computer readable program instructionsmay also be stored in a computer readable storage medium that can directa computer, a programmable data processing apparatus, and/or otherdevices to function in a particular manner, such that the computerreadable storage medium having instructions stored therein comprises anarticle of manufacture including instructions which implement aspects ofthe function/act specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram blockor blocks.

The computer readable program instructions may also be loaded onto acomputer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other deviceto cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer,other programmable apparatus or other device to produce a computerimplemented process, such that the instructions which execute on thecomputer, other programmable apparatus, or other device implement thefunctions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block orblocks.

The flowchart and block diagrams in the Figures illustrate thearchitecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementationsof systems, methods, and computer program products according to variousembodiments of the present invention. In this regard, each block in theflowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portionof instructions, which comprises one or more executable instructions forimplementing the specified logical function(s). In some alternativeimplementations, the functions noted in the block may occur out of theorder noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown in successionmay, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks maysometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon thefunctionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of theblock diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocksin the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implementedby special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specifiedfunctions or acts or carry out combinations of special purpose hardwareand computer instructions.

What is claimed is:
 1. A system for electrical detection of a molecule,the system comprising: a nanopipette filled with an electrolyte solutionand comprising a single negative electrode in the electrolyte solution,the nanopipette comprising only a single capillary; a voltage sourcecomprising a positive terminal and a negative terminal, a meter beingcoupled to the negative terminal; a fluid cell filled with theelectrolyte solution and comprising a positive electrode, wherein thefluid cell is a container having an open top and a closed bottom, thenanopipette being the only pipette in the container adjacent to thepositive electrode, the positive electrode being coupled to the positiveterminal of the voltage source and the single negative electrode beingcoupled to the negative terminal of the voltage source via the meter; ananopositioner attached to the nanopipette in order to move thenanopipette with respect to the fluid cell; and a control systemconnected to the nanopositioner in order to control movement of thenanopipette, the control system being coupled to the meter and thevoltage source, the control system being configured to control a levelof voltage applied by the voltage source from about 0 volts to a maximumvoltage relative to a first time, a second time, and a third time, themaximum voltage at the first time being associated with a verticalposition of the nanopipette, a one-half maximum voltage at the secondtime being associated with a greater vertical position of thenanopipette than the first time, the maximum voltage at the third timebeing associated with the vertical position of the nanopipette, thecontrol system having memory comprising triggers that cause the controlsystem to increase and decrease the level of the voltage applied by thevoltage source relative to the first time, the second time, and thethird time, the control system configured to perform operationscomprising: forming a fluidic bridge between the nanopipette and thefluid cell by vertically moving the nanopipette to dip a tip of thenanopipette into the electrolyte solution in the fluid cell, in order toform the fluidic bridge between the nanopipette and the electrolytesolution in the fluid cell, wherein the molecule is in the nanopipette;applying a voltage difference between the nanopipette and the fluidcell; determining entry of the molecule into the fluidic bridge bydetecting a fore pulse; breaking the fluidic bridge between thenanopipette and the fluid cell to form a nanogap by vertically movingthe nanopipette away from the fluid cell such that a middle portion ofthe molecule is in the nanogap, wherein no electrolyte solution is inthe nanogap and the nanopipette is positioned vertically above the opentop of the fluid cell to create the nanogap; in response to waiting atime interval, reforming the fluidic bridge between the nanopipette andthe fluid cell to close the nanogap; and determining that the moleculeexits the nanopipette, positioned vertically above the fluid cell, bydetecting an after pulse.
 2. The system of claim 1, wherein forming thefluidic bridge between the nanopipette and the fluid cell comprises thecontrol system bringing a tip of the nanopipette into physical contactwith the electrolyte solution in the fluid cell, thereby creating thefluidic bridge.
 3. The system of claim 1, wherein the voltage differencedrives the molecule to begin exiting the nanopipette and entering theelectrolyte solution in the fluid cell.
 4. The system of claim 1,wherein breaking the fluidic bridge between the nanopipette and thefluid cell to form the nanogap comprises the control system moving a tipof the nanopipette a distance away from the electrolyte solution suchthat a first part of the molecule is in the electrolyte solution and asecond part of the molecule remains in the nanopipette.
 5. The system ofclaim 1, wherein the control system is configured to perform operationscomprising in response to breaking the fluidic bridge trapping themolecule between the nanopipette and the fluid cell, trapping themolecule by having a first part of the molecule in the electrolytesolution and a second part of the molecule in the nanopipette.
 6. Thesystem of claim 5, wherein the molecule is trapped so as to extendthrough the nanogap.
 7. The system of claim 5, wherein a first coatingis attached to the first part of the molecule.
 8. The system of claim 7,wherein the first coating is trapped at a surface-to-fluid interface ofthe electrolyte solution when the nanogap is formed, thereby trappingthe first part of the molecule at the surface-to-fluid interface.
 9. Thesystem of claim 8, wherein a second coating is attached to the secondpart of the molecule.
 10. The system of claim 9, wherein the secondcoating is trapped in a tip of the nanopipette when the nanogap isformed, thereby trapping the second part of the molecule in the tip ofthe nanopipette.
 11. The system of claim 1, wherein the control systemis configured to perform operations comprising stretching a middle partof the molecule extended through the nanogap by moving the nanopipetteaway from the fluid cell.
 12. The system of claim 1, wherein the forepulse is a spike in ionic current that indicates translocation of themolecule through a tip of the nanopipette.
 13. The system of claim 12,wherein the fore pulse is a trigger for the nanopipette to be moved awayfrom the fluid cell to thus create the nanogap.
 14. The system of claim12, wherein the after pulse is another spike in the ionic currentindicating that the molecule has completely exited the tip of thenanopipette.
 15. The system of claim 1, wherein a nanopipette width ofthe nanopipette is less than a width of the open top of the fluid cell.16. The system of claim 1, wherein the nanogap is less than 500nanometers (nm).
 17. The system of claim 1, wherein the nanogap is about100 to 500 nm.
 18. The system of claim 1, wherein the nanogap is about50 nm.
 19. The system of claim 1, wherein the control system isconfigured to control the voltage source.
 20. A system for electricaldetection of a molecule, the system comprising: a nanopipette filledwith an electrolyte solution and comprising a single negative electrodein the electrolyte solution, the nanopipette comprising only a singlecapillary; a voltage source comprising a positive terminal and anegative terminal, a meter being coupled to the negative terminal; afluid cell comprising the electrolyte solution and a positive electrodebeing coupled to the positive terminal of the voltage source, the singlenegative electrode being coupled to the negative terminal of the voltagesource via the meter, wherein the fluid cell is a container having anopen top and a closed bottom; a nanopositioner attached to thenanopipette in order to move the nanopipette with respect to the fluidcell; and a control system connected to the nanopositioner in order tocontrol movement of the nanopipette, the control system being coupled tothe meter and the voltage source, the control system being configured tocontrol a level of voltage applied by the voltage source from about 0volts to a maximum voltage relative to a first time, a second time, anda third time, the maximum voltage at the first time being associatedwith a vertical position of the nanopipette, a one-half maximum voltageat the second time being associated with a greater vertical position ofthe nanopipette than the first time, the maximum voltage at the thirdtime being associated with the vertical position of the nanopipette, thecontrol system having memory comprising triggers that cause the controlsystem to increase and decrease the level of the voltage applied by thevoltage source relative to the first time, the second time, and thethird time.